Invisible Barriers: How Castes Shape India – Analysis
India is a unique country with an extraordinary level of social and cultural diversity. More than 1.4 billion Indians speak approximately 780 languages (22 of which are official).
India is home to some of the world’s oldest civilizations, such as the Indus Valley Civilization and the Vedic Civilization, and it also houses sacred sites for Hinduism, Buddhism, and other religions. In addition to being the world’s largest democracy, India has become a global center of innovation, particularly in the IT sector. The Indian film industry, Bollywood, is the largest in the world and holds a significant place in global popular culture. Furthermore, the country is known for its unique cuisine and fast-growing economy, which is becoming an increasingly important international player.
The Caste System – An Invisible Apartheid
However, one of the things India is known for that is not positive—or at best controversial—is its caste system. Although the caste system is invisible to foreign observers at first glance, it is a deeply embedded element of Indian society that continues to have a significant impact on everyday life in the 21st century. It is a social structure that strongly resembles apartheid in South Africa during the latter half of the 20th century, despite being legally prohibited in the secular Republic of India.
The history of the caste system is not a recent development. On the contrary, it is a socio-religious system that originated from Hinduism and has roots going back approximately 3,500 years. The Manusmriti is the most prominent book of Hindu law (written between 200 BCE and 200 CE) and considers the caste system the pillar of social order. The book prescribes a rigid hierarchy based on birth and occupation. People are expected to remain within their respective castes and perform jobs associated with their social status. Each group has specific duties and roles in society.
Caste Divisions
According to the book, Hindus are divided into four hierarchical groups (varnas): Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras. Brahmins are named after the god of creation, Brahma, and according to Hindu belief, they originate from God’s head. They are designated to engage in education, the propagation of faith, and other intellectual activities. Brahmins enjoy high social status and are considered spiritual leaders in Hindu society. In addition to interpreting sacred scriptures, they are responsible for performing rituals, ceremonies, and religious rites, ensuring spiritual purity and social balance. Kshatriyas originate from God’s arms and are tasked with being warriors and rulers to protect society. They are responsible for maintaining law and order and for fighting in the name of justice and the community. They are entrusted with governing the state and making strategic military decisions. Their duty is to ensure the safety and stability of society.
Vaishyas originate from Brahma’s loins and are designated to engage in trade and agriculture. Their role is to ensure economic prosperity. They are key drivers of economic activity and are responsible for managing resources such as farming, livestock, and trade. The role of the Vaishyas is to promote development for the benefit of all social strata. Shudras originate from God’s feet and, as the lowest caste, must perform the hardest labor as servants and workers. Their duty is to serve the higher castes, and their social mobility is highly restricted, leading to societal marginalization. These four categories are further divided into 3,000 castes and 25,000 sub-castes.
The “Untouchables”
Outside of this system exists a distinct group of people who were once referred to as the “Untouchables” but are now mostly known as Dalits, meaning “broken people.” Although all castes are subordinate to those above them—especially to the Brahmins—Dalits are in the worst position. Since they are outside the caste system, they are considered impure beings.
Dalits perform the hardest and dirtiest jobs, such as sweeping the streets, removing dead animals from roads, cleaning sewers, and burying the dead. This system is deliberately structured to ensure that they perform the most degrading tasks. Dalits, particularly Dalit women, are frequent victims of various crimes such as rape, robbery, beatings, and murder. Punishments for crimes against Dalits are generally significantly more lenient compared to those involving other members of the population. In many rural areas, Dalits are still forbidden from entering Hindu temples or collecting water from public places such as wells and springs.
The System of Superior and Inferior Beings
The caste system has created a divided society in which some social strata enjoy privileged status, while others face discrimination. Simply put, some groups are considered superior beings, while others are regarded as inferior and impure. Mixing is strictly forbidden, and everyone must adhere to their predetermined place in society. Merely belonging to a particular caste can prevent individuals from getting employed, receiving an education, moving freely, and accessing adequate healthcare. They are excluded from social life, face political discrimination, and endure numerous prejudices and stereotypes that have no basis in reality. While privileged castes live normal lives or even lives of luxury, the oppressed castes live in poverty. In many cases, birth within a caste still determines a person’s future profession. Even if lower-caste individuals attain higher education, they may still end up working as street sweepers or sewer cleaners. This unjust system creates deep social and economic inequalities, making the abolition of the caste status quo nearly impossible.
Since 1931, India has not conducted a caste-based census, making it difficult to determine the exact numbers of caste members. The proportions of different castes vary by region, but approximate estimates suggest: Brahmins make up about 5% of the population, Kshatriyas around 4%, Vaishyas about 8–10%, and Shudras about 50%. Dalits constitute approximately 20–25% of the population.
Strict Caste Separation
The caste system somewhat resembles medieval feudal Europe, where society was divided into classes: peasants, nobles, clergy, and rulers. However, that division was primarily political rather than religious and eventually collapsed with industrialization and urbanization. This has not been the case in India. Castes must remain separate. Most importantly, inter-caste marriages are strictly prohibited to prevent the mixing of bloodlines and the birth of children whose parents come from different castes. In 21st-century India, this means that neighborhoods, schools, hospitals, factories, cafes, and restaurants are segregated, with minimal interaction between members of different castes.
This rigid social division is maintained across generations, and any attempt to break caste rules can lead to serious consequences, such as social ostracization or violence. While caste barriers are somewhat weaker in urban areas, they remain strong and strictly enforced in rural regions. Many parents actively ensure their children marry within their caste, often relying on intermediaries or caste networks to find suitable partners. Those who attempt to defy caste norms frequently face pressure to “return to their place” in society.
Biological Differences
Due to the strict separation regime that has persisted for millennia, different castes have developed distinct biological differences, such as skin color. A 2016 genetic study by the Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology in Hyderabad found that class structure has a “strong impact on skin pigmentation,” with higher castes generally having lighter skin. This difference in skin tone has reinforced social prejudices, as lighter skin is often associated with higher social status and beauty in many parts of India. As a result, there is still a thriving industry for skin-whitening products, and fair skin is often preferred in marriage, business, and social standing.
Castes – An Indispensable Part of India
The caste system is one of India’s defining characteristics. The father of modern India, Mahatma Gandhi, belonged to the Vaishya caste (merchants and artisans) and the Modh Bania subcaste. He once stated: “I believe that Hindu society has survived because it is founded on the caste system… The destruction of the caste system and the adoption of the Western European system would mean that Hindus must renounce the principle of hereditary occupation, which is the essence of the caste system. The hereditary principle is eternal. Changing it would create chaos.”
However, Gandhi later radically changed his rhetoric, fiercely criticizing caste discrimination and advocating for the rights of Dalits, whom he called Harijans (“Children of God”). He believed that all people are equal before God and fought against the injustices stemming from the caste system. Nonetheless, he continued to defend the idea of varna – social classes. He argued that everyone has a hereditary calling they should follow but rejected the notion of class superiority.
Positive Changes
Since India is a secular rather than a theocratic Hindu state, formal discrimination based on caste is legally prohibited. However, because the government is often led by higher-caste individuals, laws are frequently not enforced at the local level. Although Brahmins make up at most 5% of the population, they hold influential positions in government, the military, the judiciary, education, healthcare, and the media. Many politicians lack the motivation to enforce anti-discrimination laws, as doing so could cost them the votes of higher castes.
Nonetheless, in recent decades, there have been improvements, with Dalits and other marginalized groups gaining more protection and opportunities for social advancement. Some lower-caste individuals have reached high-ranking positions in government.
For example, K. R. Narayanan, the tenth President of India (1997–2002), was a Dalit. He became the first Indian president from the Dalit community, symbolizing progress in the fight against caste discrimination. The current Indian Prime Minister, Narendra Modi, also comes from a historically marginalized lower-caste group. Specifically, he belongs to the Teli caste, traditionally associated with the oil trade. Although not from a high caste like the Brahmins or Kshatriyas, Modi rose to the top of Indian politics, emphasizing his humble origins to appeal to the masses. However, the success of lower-caste individuals has provoked resentment among the upper castes, leading to an increase in violence against Dalits in recent years.
A Persistent Problem
In the 21st century, India is one of the most important countries in the global community. It is the world’s largest democracy, the most populous country, a BRICS member, the fifth-largest economy, and a nuclear power. India is a dynamic and youthful country that has fully embraced sophisticated technologies. However, numerous problems hinder its progress. Aside from poverty, the caste system may be its most significant issue.
Despite modernization and legal bans on discrimination, caste remains a powerful force shaping social, economic, and cultural processes. According to some analyses, dismantling the caste system could take several more decades.